Dna (Rna)

We know that all organisms produce offsprings of their own kind whether it is a single celled animal like Amoeba or a multicellular animal like a horse. Amoeba produces a daughter amoeba, and a horse produces a baby horse. All this is possible just because a very special molecule that is termed as deoxyribonucleic acid or DNA. The DNA contains the hereditary material which makes every individual unique and this material is transferred from the parents to the offsprings. The DNA is present in a special organelle of the cell called the nucleus. As the size of the cell is very small and each organism has many molecules of DNA so the DNA must be tightly packed inside the nucleus and this packed form of DNA is called as chromosome. DNA spends it most of the time inside the cell in the form of chromosome. During cell division, the DNA unwinds so that it can be copied and transferred to the daughter cells. DNA also carries instructions for protein synthesis so that other biological processes can be regulated normally. The DNA present inside the nucleus is termed as nuclear DNA and the complete set of nuclear DNA is designated as genome. Apart from its occurrence inside the nucleus, DNA is also present in the cell organelle named as mitochondria which are the power houses of the cells. During sexual reproduction the offsprings inherit half of the nuclear DNA from the father and half from the mother but the mitochondrial DNA is inherited completely from the mother as the sperm cells do not bear mitochondria after fertilization.

The DNA molecule was first observed in the late 1800s by a German biochemist Frederich Miescher. But nearly a century passed after that and the scientists couldn't succeed in unraveling the mystery of the DNA molecule. The mystery of the DNA was solved in 1953 by the eminent works of James Watson, Francis Crick, Maurice Wilkins and Rosalind Franklin. By using X-ray diffraction technique the scientists pointed out the double helical structure of DNA that encodes the genetic information of every organism living on this earth.

The chemical building blocks of DNA are called as nucleotides. The nucleotides are formed of three components: a phosphate group, a sugar and one of the four types of nitrogenous bases. To form a complete strand of DNA nucleotides are linked in the form of chains with alternating arrangement of phosphate groups and sugars. The four types of nucleotide bases that form DNA are adenine (A), guanine (G), cytosine (C) and Thymine (T). The arrangement of these nitrogenous bases within a DNA molecule is very specific. The adenine can always pair with thymine on one side of the DNA helix and cytosine can also pair with guanine on one side of the DNA helix. This specific arrangement of base pairs in a DNA strand follows a rule called as Chargaff's rule which plays a very important role in the replication of the DNA molecule.

The process of DNA replication proceeds after the breaking of the weak chemical bonds between the two poly nucleotide chains by an enzyme. The DNA strand breaks in the middle separating the base pairs. These newly separated strands now work as templates from which the new strands of DNA will be obtained. Inside the nucleus many extra nucleotides are present. The bases first bond with the bases present on the template which will match just according to the Chargaff's rule. When the base pairing is completed the phosphate groups and the sugar is added to form other poly nucleotide chain. This procedure is repeated with both the template strands of DNA. The whole process is repeated thousands of time in order to form the two molecules of DNA which are exactly the replicates of the original DNA molecule and all this happens during mitosis so the daughter cells receive the exact similar character of the DNA. When an error occurs during the process of DNA replication mutation occurs. The mutation causes either deletion or addition of base pairs and the proteins also get defected by having wrong pairs of amino acids.

One of the important functions of DNA is protein synthesis. The process of protein synthesis is completed in two steps. The first step is transcription and the second step is translation. In transcription the cell uses the information from a gene in order to form a protein. Both the DNA and RNA molecules are similar in structure except the fact that RNA is shorter than DNA and bears the sugar ribose instead of deoxyribose that is present in DNA. RNA also differs from DNA in having a base uracil in place of thymine. During transcription, the type of RNA that is created is called mRNA or messenger RNA because it is used as a "messenger" to send information from a gene on DNA to a ribosome so that protein can be created. RNA polymerase recognizes and attaches to a DNA nucleotide chain at the beginning of the gene, at a place called the promoter. The promoter positions the RNA polymerase on the right strand of DNA and guides it to the right direction. As the RNA polymerase moves, it creates a new chain from the extra nucleotides. The RNA polymerase continues until it reaches a stop signal at the end of the gene. The RNA polymerase then detaches itself from the DNA and the RNA chain is released, creating mRNA.

When the mRNA sends the information from the DNA to the ribosomes it is converted into the language of amino acids. When amino acids are formed a protein is created. The mRNA transfers the information from the DNA to the ribosomes in the language of nucleotides. The ribosomes attach on a particular place on the mRNA which is called start codon which is made up of three nucleotide bases indicating that it is ready to read a message. The amino acids that will later form protein come across the transfer RNA or tRNA while they are attached to the ribosomes. The tRNA moves the amino acids along the mRNAs so that the message can feed across the ribosome. There the amino acids are all linked together to form a protein chain. Every organism on uses this process to make proteins.

Thus, it can be concluded that DNA is very essential component of an organism's life.

Sore Throat

Pharyngitis is the term doctors use to describe sore throat and it accounts for 10-15 percent of all pediatric office visits. Group A beta-hemolytic streptococcal pharyngitis (GABHS), more commonly known as strep throat, is a primary concern of a person with a sore throat. GABHS is more common in children than adults. In both kids and adults viruses are the most common cause of sore throat.

The most important concern in the person with a sore throat is to rule out some serious conditions associated with sore throat, including, most commonly GABHS. Certain factors will help predict if the cause of the sore throat is GABHS or a viral infection. The factors are not perfect and the use of a throat culture is needed in many cases in order to rule out strep throat.

Important factors to know about strep include:

• It most commonly affects children between 5-15 years old.
• It does not commonly affect children under three years old.
• It has an incubation period of 2-5 days. This means that if you have been in contact with someone who is infected and are infected your disease may not show up for 2-5 days.
• Respiratory secretions spread the infection.

Causes of sore throat

Viruses cause the majority of sore throats. Bacteria cause 5-15% of sore throats, but those between the ages of 5-15 have a higher incidence of bacterial causes of sore throat. In this group, 15-30 percent of sore throats may be caused by GABHS.

Certain factors can help determine if the sore throat is caused by a bacteria or a virus. Viruses that cause sore throat are more commonly accompanied by cough, stuffy nose, red eyes and fatigue.

Possible diagnoses

• Viral sore throat - there are over 200 viruses that cause the common cold and each presentation may be a little different. Many of these viruses are linked to sore throat. Below some specific viruses that cause sore throat will be discussed.
• Hand-foot and mouth disease. This is caused by a virus that is called the Cocsackie virus. It causes blisters on the hands and feet as well as in the mouth or throat.
• Infectious mononucleosis can also cause sore throat. This sore throat is typically severe and associated with pus (white patches) in the throat. This disease is associated with swollen lymph nodes - particularly the glands on the back of the neck. It sometimes comes with stomach pain due to an enlarged liver or spleen. Those who are treated with penicillin will usually develop a rash (90% of the time). It is most common in those who are 10-25 years old and is accompanied by fatigue and a lingering sore throat.
• HIV is a rare cause of sore throat. Individuals who have risk factors for HIV (multiple sexual partners, men who have sex with men, intravenous drug users) who present with a sore throat should have this diagnosis considered.
• Bacterial sore throat. The most common cause of bacterial sore throat is GABHS. Other bacteria can sometimes cause sore throat.
• Fungal infections rarely cause sore throats. Candida infections are a common cause of fungal sore throat. The individual will have a sore throat with a white coat on the tongue and in the oral cavity that looks like cottage cheese. The white coating will bleed if it is scraped off.
• Diphtheria is a rare cause of sore throat. It presents with a sore throat, fever, tender lymph nodes in the front on the neck and serosanguineous nasal discharge. It can be prevented by routine vaccinations.
• Kawasaki disease rarely occurs but affects children under five and presents with sore throat, tender lymph nodes, fever, eye discharge, red oral mucosa, strawberry tongue, cracked red lips, swelling of the hands and feet and red rash on the hands and feet, followed by peeling of the palms.
• Peritonsillar abscess is a serious cause of sore throat and presents with fever, feeling wiped out, a hot potato voice, difficulty swallowing, painful swallowing, ear pain and difficulty opening the mouth.
• Miscellaneous causes of sore throat include: persistent cough, smoking, gastroesophageal reflux, postnasal drip secondary to runny nose, allergies, foreign body and thyroiditis (inflamed thyroid gland).

Complications

Most sore throats are caused by a virus and go away on their own. It is important that all health care consumers are aware of when sore throats can be serious and when they are likely self-limiting.

Death is a risk of life, but it is rarely related to sore throat. Throat abscess (pus filled infection in the throat) may lead to breathing problems as the swelling in the throat reduces the ability to breath. Diphtheria can lead to respiratory failure. Untreated GABHS can affect the heart valves and has the potential to lead to heart failure.

These serious complications are rare. Rheumatic fever is one of the most common preventable complication of sore throat. It occurs after GABHS goes untreated. The general population is not as greatly affected, as people commonly believe. In fact it takes treating 3000 to 4000 people with antibiotics with strep throat to prevent one case of rheumatic fever. The incidence of rheumatic fever is about one case per one million people. Treatment with antibiotics do not guarantee prevention of rheumatic fever.

Rheumatic fever occurs about 3 weeks after an untreated GABHS infection. It is characterized by joint pain and swelling, erythema marginatum (pink rings on the trunk, arms and legs), heart murmur or subcutaneous nodules (painless, firm nodes over the bones or tendons often seen on the wrist, elbow or knees). If this is suspected an immediate evaluation with a health care provider is essential.

Peritonsillar abscess (pus behind the tonsils) can cause sore throat or can be a complication of GABHS. It is not common but is characterized by worsening sore throat, ear pain, inability to open the mouth, fever, and a hot potato voice.

A rash that feels rough, like sandpaper, is red and fades when you push in on it is likely scarlet fever. This rash will last about a week and will result in peeling of the skin. This is a common manifestation of streptococcal infection

Streptococcal infections have the potential to attack the kidneys. It may present 10-14 days after a strep throat. It is characterized by bloody urine and swelling (especially around the eyes). It is unclear if treating with antibiotics reduces the risk of kidney problems after strep throat.

Red Flags

• High fever
• Unable to handle secretions - drooling
• Difficult time opening the mouth
• Hot potato voice (muffled voice, sounds like you have a mouthful of hot potatoes)
• Uvula (piece of tissue that hangs down in the back of the throat) deviating to one side
• One swollen tonsil
• Difficultly breathing

Diagnosing strep throat

Key features of the history and the physical exam will help the health care provider determine the likelihood of streptococcal infection. There are a few key features that are most predictive of strep throat.

Recent exposure to streptococcus and white patches in the throat or on the tonsils are the two most important factors in predicting strep throat. Tonsils that are free from swelling or pus and non-tender lymph nodes in the neck are the best criteria for ruling out strep throati.

Clinical prediction rules have been developed for helping the health care provider determine who has strep and who does not. None of these rules are perfect, and it usually requires the work of a throat culture to definitively determine who has strep throat. None-the less, these key features can be useful in helping patients determining their risk for strep throat.

The prediction rule has been based off of five key criteria.

1. Fever above 100.4 degrees Fahrenheit
2. Swelling of the tonsils or pus on the tonsils
3. Sore throat in the absence of cough
4. Tender lymph nodes in the front of the neck
5. Age - One point is given if the age is between 3 and 14, and one point is taken away if over the age of 45.

Based on the number of criteria that are present one can take a guess as to how likely GABHS is. The person is given a score of -1 to 5 and utilizing that point total one can predict the likelihood of strep throat.

For example, if we look at the case study presented in chapter 2: A 20 year-old female comes to her doctor with tonsillitis. "My nose has been stuffy for the last couple of days and I have been coughing. I woke up this morning and my throat hurt really badly. I looked in my throat and my tonsils were swollen and there were white dots on them.

It is also determined that she did not have a fever. When the doctor felt the front of her neck, he determined that her lymph nodes were swollen and tender.

This patient receives one point for swollen tonsils with pus and one point for swollen lymph nodes. She has a point total of 2. Therefore, her risk of strep is about 17%.

Table 1: Percent change of having GABHS based on number of clinical criteria

-1 or 0 - 1%
1 - 10%
2 - 17%
3 - 35%
4 or 5 - 51%

As you can see from the chart, it is impossible to rule in or rule out strep throat just by doing an interview and physical examination. The CDC recommends that antibiotics not be given unless GABHS is found on strep culture. When there is a score of 4 or 5 many health care providers will treat instead of doing a culture and some clinicians even choose to treat if there is a score of 3 or more.

One fact that is not well know is that strep throat will go away on its own. Well, that is not entirely true. The symptom of sore throat will remit, but the bacteria may still persist. It has the potential to go to the heart and cause rheumatic fever, it is therefore important to treat strep throat even though the sore throat will go away.

When sore throat persists beyond five days strep throat is not likely. It is more likely mononucleosis, a sinus infection, allergies or post-nasal drip.

Diagnostic Testing

Who is a candidate for diagnostic testing?

1. All children with a sore throat
2. Selected adults with a sore throat. This includes adults with at least one feature suggestive of strep throat (swollen tonsils, pus on the tonsils, fever above 100.4 degrees Fahrenheit, swollen lymph nodes, sore throat in the absence of a cough)

What type of testing should be done?

1. A rapid strep test is indicated for most patients with a sore throat with a back up throat culture

If the rapid test reads positive, it is quite reliable. If it reads negative it may not be that reliable. Because of the tests ability to miss the diagnosis, it is recommended that the health care provider get a back up culture that is sent to the lab to confirm every negative rapid strep test. Some experts suggest you do not need a back up culture in the adult, but my experience suggests that you should do a back up culture in the adult.

The rapid test should not be used in those who had a positive strep test in the last 30 days as there still may be strep antigen fragments hanging around that could give a false positive test.
Other testing for sore throat

When sore throat persists another diagnosis to consider is mononucleosis. This is most common in those 10-25 years-old. It can be testing by checking the blood for antibodies to the Epstein-bar virus. During the first week of the illness, the test may not pick up the disease but by the second week the test picks up the disease over 80% of the time.

Testing for HIV and other sexually transmitted diseases may be warranted in the high-risk individuals. Individuals who have oral sex may need the throat tested for gonorrhea.

Some cases of sore throat warrant a broad culture that looks for other causes of sore throat such as other bacteria.
Treatment

Most cases of sore throat are either caused by a virus or GABHS. If strep throat is present treatment with antibiotics is important and if it is not present treatment of the symptoms is all that is necessary. Treatment of strep throat will reduce rheumatic fever, abscess formation, transmission and improve comfort. It is always important to stay alert for other complications of sore throat - even though they are rare.

There is a nine-day window that the clinician has to treat strep throat to prevent rheumatic fever after GABHS. Treatment will also speed healing. After starting treatment you should be feeling much better in 24-48 hours. Ideally treatment should be started within 48-72 hours.

Some clinicians choose to treat patients while they wait for the return of the culture. Realizing that resolution will be faster and it will provide comfort to some patients.

This is not a wise strategy to implement for all patients. This requires some professional judgment of the treating health care provider. Those who are suspected of having strep are better candidates for this method of treatment. The goal is to avoid excessive exposure to antibiotics. When antibiotics are prescribed without a confirmed diagnosis the patient should be encouraged to stop antibiotics immediately if the culture comes back negative.

There is no resistance to penicillin in the United States, so it is the drug of choiceii. Ten days of pills or a shot is equally effective in its management. People who will not take all of their medication should receive a shot.

Amoxicillin, which is a type of penicillin, is often used in place of penicillin in children, as the suspension of penicillin does not taste good. Amoxicillin suspension has a pleasant tasting bubble gum flavor.

Individuals who do not have angioedema (swelling deep in the skin near the eyes and lips) or hives as their allergic reaction to penicillin can be treated with first or second-generation cephalosporins. If they are, they need to be watched closely as allergic reactions with penicillin sometime cross over to an allergic reaction to cephalosporins.

Erythromycin is recommended in patients with a severe penicillin allergy. Due to side effects - mainly gastrointestinal - azithromycin or clarithromycin is sometimes substituted.

Recurrent GABHS can be treated with amoxicillin-clavulanate (Augmentin). It is not usually picked as a first line medication as it is a more expensive and has a wider spectrum of activity. A wider spectrum of activity means that it is able to cover many other types of infections. The routine utilization of broad-spectrum antibiotics for simple infections has the potential to increase the risk of antibiotic resistance.

Penicillin should be used for 10 days in the treatment of GABHS to assure that all the bacteria are killed and no straggling bacteria remain.

The use of probiotics are one strategy that will significantly reduce the risk of Clostridium difficile and other complications of antibiotic use. When you are on antibiotic it is critical to take probiotics to reduce the risk of this complications. Always keep a supply of probiotics on hand because you never know when you will need to go on antibiotics.

Treating the symptoms

Sore throat pain can be quite debilitating and managing that pain is a critical part of treatment. Symptomatic treatment often involves a combination of systemic medications and local acting medications.

Systemic medications include medications that are taken by mouth that can help relieve the pain of the sore throat and may also help other symptoms that accompany sore throats such as headache, fever and body aches. Systemic medications include: ibuprofen, acetaminophen, naproxen or acetaminophen/codeine (in severe cases). The use of medications to reduce pain and fever, in addition to reducing symptoms, may help shorten the course of disease by one to two days.

Topical medications are available in many over the counter formulations and some can be made at home. A common home remedy is salt-water gargles, which can be made by adding one-fourth of a teaspoon of salt to 6-8 ounces of warm water. This concoction can be gargled and spit out every 3-4 hours. Sugar-free or regular Popsicles can help ease the discomfort of a sore throat.

Multiple over the counter medications are available for treating sore throat. They come in sprays and lozenges.

Certain foods can help the throat feel better. For example, warm or cool liquids soothe and moisturize the throat. Nasal saline can moisturize the nasal passages and clean mucus out of the nose. This will reduce the amount of post-nasal drip, which will help reduce throat discomfort. Herbal teas may be helpful in the treatment of sore throat. Throat coat - a herbal tea - has a demulcent that is more effective at providing relief than regular tea.

Certain prescription medications have the potential to aid a sore throat. Viscous lidocaine is a medications that comes as a thick liquid that the health care provider can prescribe that will numb the throat. It can also be mixed with other liquids such as liquid Benadryl and/or Maalox to ease the discomfort.

Steroids are used in some patients with sore throats. This is a prescription given by the doctor and can be given by mouth or as a shot. Steroids reduce the inflammation of a severely inflamed throat.

Home remedies for a sore throat:

• Salt water gargles as outlined above.
• A cool mist humidifier should be used. Many sore throats are caused by or exacerbated by dryness; the moisture that a cool mist humidifier provides can improve symptoms.
• Suck on a sour drop. Lemon drops or another type of drop will stimulate saliva and reduce throat pain
• Drink tea with honey as this will coat the throat.

Follow up

Improvement in the sore throat caused by a bacteria or virus is typically noted in 2-3 days. When there is no improvement or a worsening of symptoms noted a follow up with your health care provider should be attained to rule out a more serious (cellulitis or abscess) or another underlying condition (mononucleosis or chronic post-nasal drip).

Rarely, other bacteria can cause sore throat. This is much more common in the adult than the child. This may be considered when there is a non-response to antibiotics or a negative GABHS culture and the patient is getting worse. The health care provider will often take a more broad culture to look for other bacteria that may be causing the sore throat.

At times further testing is indicated. This is not common, but may occur in the sore throat that is not explained by other causes. It is most often carried out by an ear, nose and throat specialist. A laryngoscope will be used to look for cancer, a foreign body, acid reflux or another cause of sore throat.
Recurrent Disease

When disease returns within one week of completing antibiotic therapy it is considered treatment failure. The main causes of this are:

• Not taking the medication as directed
• Resistance to the antibiotic
• Repeat infections

For those who are thought to have a resistant strain, a different antibiotic may be considered such as a cephalosporin, macrolide or amoxicillin-clavulanate.

In cases where there is repeat infection, family members should be checked to see if they are carriers of strep. If they have a positive strep culture, they should be treated.

What is a carrier?

A surprising number of people - 10 to 25 percent - are colonized with GABHSviii. When one is colonized, it means that the strep is living in the throat with out causing the person to be sick. Generally, those who are colonized do not need to be treated, but sometimes they do. Treatment should ensue when there is:

• A personal or family history of rheumatic fever
• Recurrent transmission between close contacts
• Significant anxiety about GABHS
• Consideration of removal of the tonsils to eradicate the carrier state

Tonsillectomy and Adenoidectomy

Tonsils and adenoids are often removed, but the surgery may be done too often. The tonsils are there for a reason. The tonsils, while they often get infected, help fight infections in the throat and nose and keep the infection from spreading.

There are risks with this procedure. Bleeding is the most common complications and can occur up to eight days after surgery. Sore throat after the procedure is common. The voice sometimes changes after the procedure. The most worrisome complication is death, but this only occurs in one of every 250,000 operations.

The tonsils and/or adenoids can be removed for multiple reasons including:

• Recurrent GABHS: For two-year olds, more than 4 episodes a year; for three year-olds more than 3 episodes per year; and those over 3-years-old, greater than 6 episodes a year is an indication for the tonsils and adenoids to be removed.
• Obstructive sleep apnea
• A severe infection that does not respond to antibiotics
• Recurrent peritonsillar abscess
• Potential cancer
• Persistent mouth breathers may be a candidate for removal of the adenoids
• Persistent swallowing problems if they are caused by large tonsils or adenoids

What you need to know

If you are diagnosed with strep throat:

• Do not infect others. Do not come in close contact with others for 24 hours after starting antibiotics.
• Removable oral appliances (e.g. retainers) should be cleaned completely.
• A new toothbrush should be used after 24 hours.
• Complete the entire course of antibiotics or resistance to that antibiotic may occur.
• Symptoms that do not improve by 72 hours or get worse after 48 hours require a medical evaluation.
• Do not take any antibiotics that are lying around the house for a sore throat without visiting the health care provider. Antibiotics will invalidate a throat culture.

Questions to Ask Your Health Care Provider

1. Is my sore throat related to a virus or a bacterium?
2. Do I need a culture to determine if there is a bacterial infection?
3. Which medications do you recommend to manage my symptoms?
4. Do you recommend any home remedies?
5. Will an antibiotic help my infection?
6. Are there any potential interactions between the medications that you are recommending and the current medications that I am on or any other health problems I may have?
7. When should I expect an improvement in my condition?
8. What complications should I look out for and how will they show up?

Vaccines

Employers have a vested interest in employee health, but those employees obviously have a major interest in it as well. Nothing makes that more clear than the flu vaccination, which brings positive benefits for both parties.

Benefits For Employees -

In many ways, the benefits that the flu vaccine brings for everyday employees are quite similar to those enjoyed by just about anyone. However, there are plenty of advantages that are more workplace-specific that deserve a closer look. Consider these points:

Less Sick Leave - When an employee has to miss work due to an illness, their work not only suffers - so does the work of his or her coworkers. Avoiding the flu can reduce the amount of sick leave that
employees need to take.

Boost Morale - Generally employees who are given the option of receiving a workplace flu vaccination feel more in control of their personal health, which usually translates into a boost of team morale.

Keeping The Family Healthy - Knowing that fellow employees have received the flu shot - and that you have, too - increases your confidence that you are protecting your family from the flu as well. You're less likely to bring the flu home when you work someplace that promotes the flu vaccine.

Benefits For Employers -

The benefits that the flu shot has for employers are just as compelling as those for employees, which makes it easy to see why so many workplaces have started offering them. For instance:

Fewer Absences - From a productivity standpoint, the flu vaccine reduces the chances that employees will contract the flu and be out for days at a time. In turn, productivity takes less of a hit, especially during flu season.

Shows That Employers Care - Employers who take a vested interest in the health and well being of their employees demonstrate that they care. This not only enhances the employer's image, but boosts workplace morale as well.

Illnesses Are Contained - Rather than running like wildfire through a workplace, a flu stands less of a chance of wreaking havoc when employees have received the flu shot. This helps keep productivity humming right along, reduces interruptions and reduces the chances of injuries and mistakes in the long run.

Stomach Cancer – Causes of Stomach Cancer

Stomach cancer is more readily treated when caught early. Unfortunately, by the time stomach cancer causes symptoms, it's often at an advanced stage and may have spread beyond the stomach. Yet there is encouraging news. You can reduce your risk of stomach cancer by making a few changes in your lifestyle. It is hard to diagnose stomach cancer in its early stages. Indigestion and stomach discomfort can be symptoms of early cancer, but other problems can cause the same symptoms. In advanced cases, there may be blood in your stool, vomiting, unexplained weight loss, jaundice or trouble swallowing.
Stomach cancer is more common in developing nations, while becoming less common in Western countries including Australia. At present, stomach cancer is still the fourth most common cause of death from cancer. There appear to be two types of gastric (stomach) cancer. Cancer of the stomach, or gastric cancer, is a disease in which stomach cells become malignant (cancerous) and grow out of control, forming a tumor. Almost all stomach cancers (95%) start in the glandular tissue that lines the stomach. The tumor may spread along the stomach wall or may grow directly through the wall and shed cells into the bloodstream or lymphatic system. Once beyond the stomach, cancer can spread to other organs.
Cells from malignant tumors can spread (metastasize) to other parts of the body. Cancer cells spread by breaking away from the original tumor and entering the bloodstream or the lymphatic system. The cells invade other organs and form new tumors that damage these organs. The spread of cancer is called metastasis. There are about 9,000 new cases of stomach cancer diagnosed every year and it's more common in men, particularly in late middle age. Stomoch cancer is on the decrease and is now about half as common as it was 30 years ago.

Causes of Stomach Cancer

Tobacco and alcohol use. Tobacco use can irritate the stomach lining, which may help explain why smokers have twice the rate of stomach cancer that nonsmokers do. Alcohol has been associated with an increased risk of stomach cancer, but the link between the two isn't clear.

Type A blood: Blood type groups refer to certain substances that are normally present on the surface of red blood cells and some other types of cells. These groups are important in matching blood for transfusions. For unknown reasons, people with type A blood have a higher risk of getting stomach cancer.

Cancer can either be malignant or benign. Benign cancer is curable, meaning that there is some medical way of being able to provide a curing solution to the cancer-hit part of the body. On the other hand, malignant cancer is a lot more serious since this means that cancer has developed into something complicated where medical resources have close to lesser chances of medicinal resolution.

People who have pernicious anaemia (an autoimmune condition where the lining of the stomach becomes thin, less acid is produced and anaemia develops due to lack of vitamin B12), atrophic gastritis, or a hereditary condition of growths in the stomach are at a higher risk of developing this type of cancer.

A diet high in salt and nitrates and low in vitamins A and C increases the risk for stomach cancer. Other dietary risk factors include food preparation (e.g., preserving food by smoking, salt-curing, pickling, or drying) and environment (e.g., lack of refrigeration, poor drinking water). A diet high in raw fruits and vegetables, citrus fruits, and fiber may lower the risk for stomach cancer.

Stomach polyps may become cancerous (malignant) and are thus removed. Adenocarcinoma of the stomach is particularly likely to develop if the polyps consist of glandular cells, if the polyps are larger than ¾ inch (2 centimeters), or if several polyps exist.
Exposure to certain dusts, molds, fumes, and other environmental agents at home or in the workplace has been linked to a higher than average risk of stomach cancer.Some experts believe that smoking might increase stomach cancer risk.

HYPERTHERMIA IN CANCER TREATMENT

Breaf History of Hyperthermia
The healing effect of heat treatment was already mentioned in the advanced cultures of the old Egypt (2400 B.C.), but only the medical professionals of the Greek Antique used this therapeutic approach consistently, acknowledged it and called it over-warming (in Greek: Hyperthermia). "Give me the power to produce fever and I heal every illness", said Parmenides, Greek physician, 540-480 B.C.

Hyperthermia in cancer treatment
Hyperthermia (also called thermal therapy or thermotherapy) is an acute condition which occurs when the body produces or absorbs more heat than it can dissipate. It is usually caused by prolonged exposure to high temperatures. The heat-regulating mechanisms of the body eventually become overwhelmed and unable to effectively deal with the heat, causing the body temperature to climb uncontrollably.

Hyperthermia can also be created artificially by drugs or medical devices. In these instances it may be used to treat cancer and other conditions. Cancer cells are more heat-sensitive than healthy cells and their structure reacts differently to overheating. In 1910 the possibility of overheating in order to increase the radiation effect on malicious tumors was described for the first time. This already well-known and applied method was rediscovered as so called "whole body hyperthermia" in the beginning of the 1960s. Since the 70s a number of studies were run to further investigate this therapy form.

Research has shown that high temperatures (up to 44°C) can damage and kill cancer cells, usually with minimal injury to normal tissues. By killing cancer cells and damaging proteins and structures within cells, hyperthermia may shrink tumors.

Hyperthermia is almost always used with other forms of cancer therapy, such as radiation therapy and chemotherapy. Hyperthermia may make some cancer cells more sensitive to radiation or harm other cancer cells that radiation cannot damage. When hyperthermia and radiation therapy are combined, they are often given within an hour of each other. Hyperthermia can also enhance the effects of certain anticancer drugs, which is mutually strengthened thereby and a healing more likely - the so-called synergistic effect of hyperthermia. It was found out that cytostatic drugs (chemotherapy substances) clearly act more aggressively at temperatures over 40° C than within the range of the normal body temperature.

Source www.articlebase.com

Stop acne – how do i get rid of acne scars – hitting the source

Getting rid of acne scars is the next challenge we must face after acne. Some scars left by acne after it heals can be superficial scars; other scars left by acne can be deep scars. If an acne is not treated early with medication or any advance procedures that stops acne it can lead to scarring, these scars can sometimes be deep. If the scars left by acne are on the face, it can affect a person’s self-esteem, it can affect his or her social life, so it is very important to avoid acne scars, you can do this by treating your acne if it is juts starting to develop at an early stage, this way you can stop it from spreading and after it heal you can avoid acne scars.

Use a medication that can remove acne scars, you may want to purchase a medication that has elements that can remove and get rid of acne and acne scars, this kind of medication is a great powerful medication to stop acne and remove acne scars, whether you have no more acne and is just left with acne scars you need this kind of medication because even if you are just using a medication that can only get rid of acne scars but can’t get rid of acne you are only doing the same thing over again, because the medication you have doesn’t have the power to stop acne but can only remove or erase acne scars.

It is very important that whenever you purchase any medication that can remove acne scars it must also contain the power to stop acne, because if it doesn’t have this kind of capability to stop an acne you will just be moving in circles, you can’t focus alone on how to get rid of acne scars, you need to also focus on how you can stop your acne, because if you stop your acne while erasing acne scars using any medication that has this kind of capability, you will be able to get rid of your acne and acne scars fast.

Purchasing such medication that has no power to stop an acne is risky because there is a big tendency that your acne may develop again, giving you more acne scars. You can’t just rely on medications that can only remove acne scars, because the more acne you will have the more scars you will have.

You need to focus on the source that produces acne scars and the source is acne. It is advisable to have this kind of medication that has double action effect it not only stop acne but will also remove all the scars left by acne.

An example of these elements that stops acne while erasing acne scars are the benzoyl peroxide and aloe Vera.

Benzoyl peroxide plays a vital role when it comes to stop acne, this element go deep inside the skin and kills all the bacteria to prevent it from developing, benzoyl peroxide can eliminate acne fast it can eliminate any kinds of can, prevent future breakouts and can stop redness on the acne affected skin, benzoyl peroxide is an outstanding substance when it comes to fight acne, it beats acne from the inside-out and it really works because it penetrates the skin deep.

Aloe Vera is known to remove, minimize acne scars or any scars on the skin. Aloe Vera has enzymes that regenerate skin tissues, it moisturizes the skin and it has an anti-inflammatory agents and anti-bacterial properties that fight infection. It is use to heal cut, psoriasis, pimples and many skin disorders.

These are very important elements that you can use to get rid of acne and acne scars, if you follow this simple tips and advice, you will be able to free yourself from acne and the scars left by acne, and the best move you can do now, is to start treating you acne now.